Iran
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"Persia" redirects here. For other uses, see Persia (disambiguation).
This article is about the modern nation. For other uses, see Iran (disambiguation).
Islamic Republic of Iran
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Motto:
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| Capital and largest city | Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E | |||||
| Official languages | Persian | |||||
| Spoken languages[1] | Turkmen | |||||
| Demonym | Iranian | |||||
| Government | Unitary TheocraticIslamic republic | |||||
| - | President | Hassan Rouhani | ||||
| - | First Vice President | Eshaq Jahangiri | ||||
| Legislature | Islamic Consultative Assembly | |||||
| Unification[2] | ||||||
| - | Median Empire | 625 BCE | ||||
| - | Achaemenid Empire | 550 BCE | ||||
| - | Sassanid Empire[3] | 224 | ||||
| - | Safavid Empire | 1501[4] | ||||
| - | Islamic Republic | 1 April 1979 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 24 October 1979 | ||||
| - | Constitution amendment | 28 July 1989 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 1,648,195 km2 (18th) 636,372 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | 0.7 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2013 census | 77,176,930[5] (17th) | ||||
| - | Density | 48/km2 (162rd) 124/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2012 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $999.199 billion[6] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $13,127[6] | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2012 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $548.895 billion[6] | ||||
| - | Per capita | $7,211[6] | ||||
| Gini (2008) | 38[7] medium | |||||
| HDI (2013) |  0.742[8]high · 76th | |||||
| Currency | Rial (﷼) (IRR) | |||||
| Time zone | IRST (UTC+3:30) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | IRDT (UTC+4:30) | ||||
| Date format | yyyy/mm/dd (SH) | |||||
| Drives on the | right | |||||
| Calling code | +98 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | IR | |||||
| Internet TLD | ||||||
Iran (
i/ɪˈrɑːn/[9] or /aɪˈræn/;[10] Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] (
listen)) or Persia (/ˈpɜrʒə/ or/ˈpɜrʃə/),[10][11] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a country in Western Asia.[12][13][14] The country is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan andTurkmenistan, with Kazakhstan and Russia to the north across the Caspian Sea. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey.
i/ɪˈrɑːn/[9] or /aɪˈræn/;[10] Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)) or Persia (/ˈpɜrʒə/ or/ˈpɜrʃə/),[10][11] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a country in Western Asia.[12][13][14] The country is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan andTurkmenistan, with Kazakhstan and Russia to the north across the Caspian Sea. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran is an ethnically diverse country and has a population of around 77 million.[12][15] It is a mountainous country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in three spheres of Asia. Tehran is the capital, the country's most populous city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Known as a developing country, Iran is a regional power,[16][17] and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the largest proven natural gas reserves in the world,[18] and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.[19]
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations.[20] The first dynasty in Iran formed during the Elamite kingdom in 2800 BC. The Iranian Medes unified Iran into an empire in 625 BC.[2] In 633 AD, Muslim armies invaded Iran, and had conquered the region by 651 AD.[21] The emergence in 1501 of the Safavid dynasty,[4] which promoted Twelver Shia Islam[22] as the official religion of their empire, marked one of the most important turning points in Iranian and Muslim history.[23] The Persian Constitutional Revolution established the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy. Following a coup d'état instigated by the UK and US in 1953, Iran gradually became a more autocratic country. Growing dissent with foreign influence culminated during the Iranian Revolutionwhich led to the establishment of an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979.[15][24]
Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC and OPEC. The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 constitution, combines elements of a parliamentary democracy with a religious theocracy run by the country’s clergy. The highest state authority is theSupreme Leader. Shia Islam is the official religion and Persian is the official language.[25]
Contents
[hide]Etymology
Main article: Name of Iran
The name of Iran (ایران) is the Modern Persian derivative from the Proto-Iranian termAryānā, meaning "Land of the Aryans", first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avestatradition.[26][27][28][29] The term Ērān is found to refer to Iran in a 3rd-century Sassanidinscription, and the Parthian inscription that accompanies it uses the Parthian term "aryān" in reference to Iranians.[30]
Historically Iran has been referred to as "Persia" or similar (La Perse, Persien, Perzië, etc.) by the Western world, mainly due to the writings of Greek historians who called IranPersis (Περσίς), meaning land of the Persians. In 1935 Rezā Shāh requested that the international community refer to the country as Iran. Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and in 1959 both names were to be used interchangeably.[31]Today both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.[32]
The historical and cultural wider usage of "Iran" is not restricted to the modern state proper.[33][34][35] Irānshahr[36] or Irānzamīn (Greater Iran)[37] corresponded to territories of Iranian cultural or linguistic zones. Besides modern Iran, it included portions of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia, the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia.
History
Main article: History of Iran
Early history
Further information: Archaeological sites in Iran, Proto-Elamite, Jiroft culture, Tepe Sialk, and Shahr-e Sukhteh
The earliest archaeological artifacts in Iran, like those excavated at the Kashafrud and Ganj Par sites, attest to a human presence in Iran since the Lower Paleolithic era.[38] Neanderthal artifacts dating back to the Middle Paleolithic period have been found mainly in the Zagros region at sites such as Warwasi and Yafteh Cave.[39][40][page needed] Early agricultural communities began to flourish in Iran at around 8000 BC,[41][42] with settlements such as Chogha Bonut, Susa and Chogha Mish developing in the Zagrosregion.[43][page needed][44][45]
The emergence of Susa as a city is determined by C14 dating as early as 4395 BC.[46] There are dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.[45][47][48] During theBronze age Iran was home to several civilisations such as Elam, Jiroft and Zayandeh Rud civilisations. Elam, the most prominent of these civilisations developed in the southwest of Iran alongside those in Mesopotamia. The development of writing in Elam in fourth millennium BC paralleled that in Sumer.[49] The Elamite kingdom continued its existence until the emergence of the Median andAchaemenid Empires.
Classical Era
Main articles: Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire,Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, and Sassanid Empire
During the second millenium BC, Proto-Iranian tribes arrived in Iran from the Eurasian steppes,[51] rivaling the native settlers of the country.[52][53] As these tribes dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iranand beyond, the boundaries of modern Iran were dominated by the Persian, Parthian and Mediantribes. The unification of the Median tribes under a single ruler in 728 BC led to the creation of a Median empire, which by 612 BC controlled the whole of Iran as well as eastern Anatolia.[54]
In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great from the state of Anshan took over the Median empire, and founded theAchaemenid empire by unifying other city states. The conquest of Media happened as a result of what is called the Persian revolt, which was initially triggered by the actions of the Median rulerAstyages, and quickly spread to other provinces, as they allied with the Persians. Later conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt and the lands to the west of the Indus an Oxus Rivers. Conflict on the western borders began with the famous Greco-Persian Wars which continued through the first half of the 5th century BC and ended with the Persian withdrawal from all of their European territories.[55] The empire had a centralised, bureaucratic administration under the Emperor and a large professional army and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.[56]
From the late 10th to late 7th centuries BC, these Iranic peoples, together with the pre Iranic kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia.[57] The unification of the Median tribes under a single ruler in 728 BC would eventually lead to the creation of a Median empire, which by 612 BC controlled the whole of Iran as well as eastern Anatolia and parts of the southern Caucasus. The Medes and Persians had been hitherto subject to Assyria, however under king Cyaxares they entered into an alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylon, and also the Scythians, Cimmerians and Arameans, and together they attacked and finally destroyed the civil war ravaged Assyrian Empire between 616 BC and 605 BC, thus freeing their respective peoples from three centuries of the Assyrian yoke.[58]
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. Following the premature death of Alexander, Iran came under the control of Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, Parthia rose to become the main power in Iran and continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries until 224 AD, when it was succeeded by the Sassanid Empire.[59] The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with the capital at Ctesiphon.[60] Most of the period of the Parthian and Sassanid Empires were overshadowed by the Roman-Persian Wars, which raged on their western borders for over 700 years. These wars exhausted both Romans and Sassanids,which arguably led to the defeat of both at the hands of the invading Muslim Arabs.
Middle Ages (652–1501)
Main articles: Islamic conquest of Iran and Medieval Iran
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The prolonged Roman-Persian wars, as well as social conflict within the Empire opened the way for an Islamic invasion of Iran in the 7th century.[61][62] Initially defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate, Iran later came under the rule of their successors the Ummayad and Abbasid Caliphates. The process of conversion of Iranians to Islam which followed was a prolonged and gradual process. Under the new Arab elite of the Rashidun and later Ummayad Caliphates Iranians, both Muslim (mawali) and non-Muslim (Dhimmi), were discriminated, being excluded from government and military, and having to pay a special tax.[63][64] In 750 the Abbasids succeeded in overthrowing the Ummayad Caliphate, mainly due to the support from dissatisfied Iranian mawali.[65] The mawali formed the majority of the rebel army, which was led by the Iranian general Abu Muslim.[66][67][68] After two centuries of Arab rule semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms (such as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanidsand Buyids) began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate. By the Samanid era in the 9th and 10th centuries Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.[69]
The arrival of the Abbasid Caliphs saw a revival of Persian culture and influence, and a move away from Arabic culture. The role of the old Arab aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Persian bureaucracy.[70] The blossoming Persian literature, philosophy, medicine, and art became major elements in the forming of a Muslim civilization during the Islamic Golden Age.[71][72] TheIslamic Golden Age reached its peak in the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Persia was the main theatre of scientific activity.[73] After the 10th century, Persian, alongside Arabic, was used for scientific, philosophical, historical, mathematical, musical, and medical works, as important Iranian writers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Avicenna, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, Naser Khusraw and Biruni made contributions to Persian scientific writing.
The cultural revival that began in the Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity, and so earlier attempts of Arabization never succeeded in Iran. The Iranian Shuubiyahmovement became a catalyst for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.[74] The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language attested to the epic poet Ferdowsi, now regarded as the most important figure in Persian literature.
The 10th century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian plateau.[75] Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as slave-warriors (Mamluks), replacing Persian and Arab elements within the army.[66] As a result the Mamluks gained significant political power. In 999, Iran came under the rule of Ghaznavid dynasty, whose rulers were of Mamluk Turk origin, and later under the Turkish Seljuk and Khwarezmian Empires. These Turks had been Persianised and had adopted Persian models of administration and rulership.[75] The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turko-Persian tradition.
In 1219-21 the Khwarezmian Empire suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan's Mongol army. Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.[76] Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256 Hulagu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, established the Ilkhanate dynasty in Iran. In 1370 yet another conqueror, Timur, commonly known as Tamerlane in the West, followed Hulagu's example, establishing the Timurid Dynasty which lasted for another 156 years. In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens.[77] Hulagu, Timur and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of the Persians, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.[78]
Dynasties (1501–1979)
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At the start of the 16th century, Shah Ismail I established the Safavid Dynasty in western Persia and Azerbaijan.[75] He subsequently extended his authority over all of Persia. Ismail instigated a forced conversion from Sunni to Shi'a Islam.[79] The rivalry between Safavid Persia and the Ottoman Empire led to several Ottoman–Persian Wars.[76] The Safavid era peaked in the reign of the brilliant soldier, statesman and administrator Shah Abbas I (1587-1629).[23][76] Following a slow decline in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Safavid dynasty was ended by Pashtun rebels who besieged Isfahan and defeated Soltan Hosein in 1722.
In 1729, a Khorasan chieftain, Nader Shah, successfully drove out, then conquered the Pashtun invaders. In 1738-9 he invaded India and sacked Delhi. Following a brief period of civil war and turmoil, sparked by Nader Shah's assassination, Karim Khan came to power in 1750, bringing a period of relative peace and prosperity.[76] Another civil war ensued after Karim Khan's death in 1779, out of which Aga Muhammad Khan emerged victorious, founding the Qajar Dynasty in 1794. Qajar rule is characterised as a century of misrule.[75] The Great Persian Famine of 1870–1871 is believed to have caused the death of 1.5 million persons, or 20–25% of Persia's population.[80]
Whilst resisting efforts to be colonised, Iran suffered in the 19th century as a result of Russian and British empire-building, known as 'The Great Game', losing much of its territory in the Russo-Persian and the Anglo-Persian Wars. A series of protests took place in response to the sale ofconcessions to foreigners by Nasser al-Din Shah and Mozaffar ad-Din Shah between 1872 and 1905, the last of which resulted in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution and establishment of Iran's first national parliament (majles) in 1906, which was abolished in 1908. The struggle continued until 1911, when Mohammad Ali was defeated and forced to abdicate. On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern Iran in 1911. During World War I, the British occupied much of western Iran, not fully withdrawing until 1921.
In 1921 Reza Khan, Prime Minister of Iran and former general of the Persian Cossack Brigade, overthrew the Qajar Dynasty and became Shah. In 1941 he was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, after Iran came under British and Russian occupation following theAnglo-Soviet invasion that established the Persian Corridor and would last until 1946.
In 1951 Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected prime minister. He became enormously popular in Iran after he nationalized Iran's petroleum industry and oil reserves. He was deposed in anAnglo-American coup in 1953, the first time the US had overthrown a foreign government during theCold War.[82]
After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic. Arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, SAVAK, were used to crush all forms of political opposition. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeinibecame an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah sent him into exile. He went first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. By the mid-1970s, there was growing unrest with the Shah's repressive regime.
Islamic Republic (1979-)
See also: Iranian Revolution
The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution,[83][84][85] began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.[86] After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country and its economy, the Shah fled the country in January 1979 and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran. In April 1979 Iran officially became an Islamic Republic, after its establishment was supported in a referendum.[15][24] Nationwide uprisings against the new regime erupted in Kordestan, Khuzestan, Balochistan and other areas, though they were eventually subdued.
A referendum in December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.[87] Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were executed by the Islamic regime afterward.[88] On 4 November 1979, a group of Iranian students seized US embassy personnel.[89] Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for their release orrescue them were unsuccessful. In January 1981 the hostages were finally set free according to theAlgiers Accords.
Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of the disorder in the wake of the Revolution by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. On 22 September 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran–Iraq War. Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982 the Iranian forces successfully managed to drive the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Despite receiving large amounts of foreign financial and military aid (including chemical weapons), all of Saddam's subsequent offensives were thrown back. The war continued until 1988, when Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the UN. The total Iranian casualties in the war were estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000.[90] An estimated 95,000 Iranian child soldiers were killed during the Iran–Iraq War.[91]
Following the Iran–Iraq War, President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution. Rafsanjani served until 1997. Rafsanjani was succeeded by the moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami. However, Khatami is widely regarded as having been unsuccessful in achieving his goal of making Iran more free and democratic.[92]
In the 2005 presidential elections the conservative populist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was elected.[93] In the 2009 Iranian presidential election the Interior Ministry announced incumbent president Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with 33.75%.[94][95] Allegations of large irregularities provoked the 2009–2010 Iranian election protests both within Iran and in major capitals in the West.[96]
Hassan Rouhani was elected as President of Iran on 15 June, defeating Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates.[97][98]He took office on 3 August 2013 and replaced Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Iran
See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran
Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world, with an area of 1,648,195 km2(636,372 sq mi).[19] Its area roughly equals that of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, or somewhat more than the US state of Alaska.[99] Iran lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. Its borders are with Azerbaijan(611 km (380 mi)) (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave (179 km (111 mi) ))[100] and Armenia(35 km (22 mi)) to the north-west; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km (616 mi)) to the north-east; Pakistan (909 km (565 mi)) and Afghanistan (936 km (582 mi)) to the east; Turkey (499 km (310 mi)) and Iraq (1,458 km (906 mi)) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south.
Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan Province. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaux from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros andAlborz Mountains; the last contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush.[101]
The northern part of Iran is covered by dense rain forests called Shomal or the Jungles of Iran. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins such as the Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. The only largeplains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman.
Climate
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Iran's climate ranges from arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and thenorthern forests. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).[102][103] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part.
To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain, and have occasional deserts.[103]Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[103]
Fauna
Iran's wildlife is composed of several animal species including bears, gazelles, wild pigs, wolves, jackals, panthers, Eurasian Lynx, and foxes. Domestic animals include, sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcon are also native to Iran.
One of the most famous members of Iranian wildlife is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, also known as the Iranian Cheetah, whose numbers were greatly reduced after the Iranian Revolution. Today there are ongoing efforts to increase its population and introduce it back in India. Iran had lost all its Asiatic Lion and the now extinct Caspian Tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century.[104]
Provinces and cities
Main articles: Provinces of Iran and Counties of Iran
See also: List of Iranian cities by population
Iran is divided into thirty one provinces (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestān).
Iran has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[105] The United Nations predicts that by 2030, 80% of the population will be urban.[106][not in citation given] Most internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, andQom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385AP) census.[107][not in citation given] Tehran, with a population of 7,705,036, is the largest city in Iran and is the capital. Tehran, like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. It is the hub of the country'scommunication and transport network.
Mashhad, with a population of 2,410,800, is the second largest Iranian city and the centre of the Razavi Khorasan Province. Mashhad is one of the holiest Shia cities in the world as it is the site of the Imam Reza shrine. It is the centre of tourism in Iran, and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year.[108][109]
Another major Iranian city is Isfahan (population 1,583,609), which is the capital of Isfahan Province. The Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the 11th to the 19th century. The growth of the suburban area around the city has turned Isfahan into Iran's second most populous metropolitan area (3,430,353).[110]
The fourth major city of Iran is Tabriz (population 1,378,935), the capital of the East Azerbaijan Province. It is also the second industrial city of Iran after Tehran. Tabriz had been the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s and one of its former capitals and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history.
The fifth major city is Karaj (population 1,377,450), located in Alborz Province and situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of theAlborz mountains; however, the city is increasingly becoming an extension of metropolitan Tehran.
The sixth major Iranian city is Shiraz (population 1,214,808); it is the capital of Fars Province. The Elamite civilization to the west greatly influenced the area, which soon came to be known as Persis. The ancient Persians were present in the region from about the 9th century BC, and became rulers of a large empire under the Achaemenid dynasty in the 6th century BC. The ruins of Persepolis andPasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, are located in or near Shiraz. Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire and is situated 70 kilometres (43 mi) northeast of modern Shiraz. UNESCO declared the citadel of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.
|
Largest cities or towns of Iran Statistical Center of Iran: Results of national census, 2012[111] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | Rank | City name | Province | Pop. | ||
 Tehran  Mashhad | 1 | Tehran | Tehran | 8,154,051 | 11 | Rasht | Gilan | 639,951 |  Isfahan  Karaj |
| 2 | Mashhad | Razavi Khorasan | 2,749,374 | 12 | Zahedan | Sistan and Baluchestan | 560,725 | ||
| 3 | Isfahan | Esfahan | 1,756,126 | 13 | Kerman | Kerman | 534,441 | ||
| 4 | Karaj | Alborz | 1,614,626 | 14 | Arak | Markazi | 526,182 | ||
| 5 | Tabriz | East Azerbaijan | 1,494,988 | 15 | Hamadan | Hamadan | 525,794 | ||
| 6 | Shiraz | Fars | 1,460,665 | 16 | Yazd | Yazd | 486,152 | ||
| 7 | Ahwaz | Khuzestan | 1,112,021 | 17 | Ardabil | Ardabil | 482,632 | ||
| 8 | Qom | Qom | 1,074,036 | 18 | Bandar Abbas | Hormozgan | 435,751 | ||
| 9 | Kermanshah | Kermanshah | 851,405 | 19 | Eslamshahr | Tehran | 389,102 | ||
| 10 | Urmia | West Azerbaijan | 667,499 | 20 | Zanjan | Zanjan | 386,851 | ||
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Iran
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution, and comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Leader of the Revolution ("Supreme Leader") is responsible for delineation and supervision of the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[112]The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war or peace.[112] The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are appointed by the Supreme Leader.[112] The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[113]
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority.[112][114] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term.[114][dubious ] Presidential candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution.[115]
The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.[112] The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[116] Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.[117]
The legislature of Iran (known in English as the Islamic Consultative Assembly) is a unicameral body.[118] The Majlis of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms.[118] The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies internationaltreaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[119]
The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.[120][121] The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision.[114] The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.[122]
Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran.
Law
Main article: Judicial system of Iran
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.[123]
There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.[123] The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[123]
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Guardian Council determines candidates' eligibility.[123] The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.[123] It has not challenged any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.[123]
Article 167 of the constitution states that all judicial rulings must be based upon "authoritative Islamic sources and authentic fatwa".[124]Book 2 of the Islamic Penal Code of Iran is entirely devoted to hudud punishments, including flogging and stoning for adultery, and execution for men who have sex with men.[125]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Iran
Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution.[126] Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the Western world due to suspicions that Iran could divert the civilian nuclear technology to a weapons program. This has led the UN Security Council to imposesanctions against Iran on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic isolation on the international scene. The US Director of National Intelligence said in February 2009 that Iran would not realistically be able to a get a nuclear weapon until 2013, if it chose to develop one.[127]
Military
Main articles: Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Defense industry of Iran
The Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army, Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totaling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totaling around 900,000 trained troops.[128] Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.[129] In 2007, Iran's military spending represented 2.6% of the GDP or $102 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.[130] Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence.[131]
Since the Iranian Revolution, to overcome foreign embargo, Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks,armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, military vessels, guided missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters andfighter planes.[132][133][134] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot,Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3 and Sejjil missiles, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).[135] The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile, it is a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Iran
Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.[136] In 2011 GDP was $482.4 billion ($1.003 trillion at PPP), or $13,200 at PPP per capita.[19] Iran is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank.[137] In the early 21st century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.[citation needed] The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the Iranian rial, which serves as the country's currency.
Economic sanctions against Iran, such as a European Union embargo against Iranian crude oil, have affected the economy.[138] Sanctions have led to a steep fall in the value of the rial, and as of April 2013 one US dollar is worth 36,000 rial, compared with 16,000 in early 2012.[139] The government doesn't recognise trade unions other than the Islamic Labour Councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.[140] The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month (US$ 134).[141] Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.[141]
In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.[142] As at 2007, Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign exchange reserves mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.[143] Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.[144][145] In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a 5-year period and increase productivity and social justice.[146]
The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed abiotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry.[148] However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness. Iran ranks 69th out of 139 inGlobal Competitiveness Report.[149]
Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of car-manufacture and transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals in the Middle East.[150]
In 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores and now runs 96 cores. Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS.[151] Sorena 2 Robot, which was designed by engineers at University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.[152]
In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCOchair in biology.[153] In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Tehran.[154] According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khademhosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world.[155] Iran ranks 15th in the world innanotechnologies.[156][157][158]
Iran placed its domestically built satellite, Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Iranian Revolution, on 2 February 2009,[159]through Safir rocket, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[160]
In Iran, the state-owned Telecommunication Company of Iran handles telecommunications. The media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. Iran originally received access to the internet in 1993[citation needed], and it has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.[161]
Energy
Iran has the largest proved gas reserves in the world, with 33.6 trillion cubic metres.[18] It also ranks third in oil reserves.[162][163] It is OPEC's 2nd largest oil exporter and is an energy superpower.[164][165] In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion on fuel imports, because of contrabandand inefficient domestic use.[166] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m3/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early years of the 2000s (decade), industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.
In 2004, a large share of natural gas reserves in Iran were untapped. The addition of newhydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant is to come online in 2009. Iran is the third country in the world to have developed GTL technology.[167]
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr went online in 2011.[168][169]
The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the 7th country in production of uranium hexafluoride.[170]
About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Iran currently ranks 89th in tourist income, but is rated among the "10 most touristic countries" in the world in terms of its history.[171][172] Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.
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